Definition Of Music

How to define music has long been the subject of debate; philosophers, musicians, and, more recently, various social and natural scientists have argued about what constitutes music. The definition has varied through history, in different regions, and within societies. Definitions vary as music, like art, is a subjectively perceived phenomenon. Its definition has been tackled by philosophers of art, lexicographers, composers, music critics, musicians, semioticians or semiologists, linguists, sociologists, and neurologists. Music may be defined according to various criteria including organization, pleasantness, intent, social construction, perceptual processes and engagement, universal aspects or family resemblances, and through contrast or negative definition.

Etymology
The word music comes from the Greek mousikê (tekhnê) by way of the Latin musica. It is ultimately derived from mousa, the Greek word for muse. In ancient Greece, the word mousike was used to mean any of the arts or sciences governed by the Muses. Later, in Rome, ars musica embraced poetry as well as instrument-oriented music. In the European Middle Ages, musica was part of the mathematical quadrivium: arithmetics, geometry, astronomy and musica. The concept of musica was split into three major kinds by the fifth century philosopher, Boethius: musica universalis, musica humana, and musica instrumentalis. Of those, only the last—musica instrumentalis—referred to music as performed sound.

Musica universalis or musica mundana referred to the order of the universe, as God had created it in "measure, number and weight". The proportions of the spheres of the planets and stars (which at the time were still thought to revolve around the earth) were perceived as a form of music, without necessarily implying that any sound would be heard—music refers strictly to the mathematical proportions. From this concept later resulted the romantic idea of a music of the spheres. Musica humana, designated the proportions of the human body. These were thought to reflect the proportions of the Heavens and as such, to be an expression of God's greatness. To Medieval thinking, all things were connected with each other—a mode of thought that finds its traces today in the occult sciences or esoteric thought—ranging from astrology to believing certain minerals have certain beneficiary effects.

Musica instrumentalis, finally, was the lowliest of the three disciplines and referred to the manifestation of those same mathematical proportions in sound—be it sung or played on instruments. The polyphonic organization of different melodies to sound at the same time was still a relatively new invention then, and it is understandable that the mathematical or physical relationships in frequency that give rise to the musical intervals as we hear them, should be foremost among the preoccupations of Medieval musicians.

Translations
The languages of many cultures do not include a word for or that would be translated as music. Inuit and most North American Indian languages do not have a general term for music. Among the Aztecs, the ancient Mexican theory of rhetorics, poetry, dance, and instrumental music, used the Nahuatl term In xochitl-in kwikatl to refer a complex mix of music and other poetic verbal and non-verbal elements, and reserve the word Kwikakayotl (or cuicacayotl) only for the sung expressions (Leon-Portilla 2007, 11). In Africa there is no term for music in Tiv, Yoruba, Igbo, Efik, Birom, Hausa, Idoma, Eggon or Jarawa. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Europeans mean by the term music (Schafer). The Mapuche of Argentina do not have a word for music, but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (kantun), European and non-Mapuche music (kantun winka), ceremonial songs (öl), and tayil (Robertson 1976, 39).

Some languages in West Africa have no term for music but the speakers do have the concept (Nettl 1989,[citation needed]). Musiqi is the Persian word for the science and art of music, muzik being the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983,[citation needed]), though some things European influenced listeners would include, such as Quran chanting, are excluded. Actually, there are varying degrees of "musicness"; Quran chanting and Adhan is not considered music, but classical improvised song, classical instrumental metric composition, and popular dance music are.

Definitions

Organized sound
An often-cited definition of music, coined by Edgard Varèse, is that it is "organized sound" (Goldman 1961, 133). The fifteenth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica describes that "while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit."

"Organization" also seems necessary because it implies purposeful and thus human organization.[citation needed] This human organizing element seems crucial to the common understanding of music. Sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as "musical", but rarely as "music". See zoomusicology.

Additionally, Schaeffer (1968, 284) describes that the sound of classical music "has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities—and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality." Yet the definition according to the esthesic level does not allow that the sounds of classical music are complex, are noises, rather they are regular, periodic, even, musical sounds. Nattiez (1990, 47—48): "My own position can be summarized in the following terms: just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both." (see "music as social construct" below)

Language
Many definitions of music implicitly hold that music is a communicative activity which conveys to the listener moods, emotions, thoughts, impressions, or philosophical, sexual, or political concepts or positions. "Musical language" may be used to mean style or genre, while music may be treated as language without being called such, as in Fred Lerdahl or others' analysis of musical grammar. Levi R. Bryant defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method such as mathematics (Ashby 2004, 4).

Subjective experience
This view of music is most heavily criticized by proponents of the view that music is a social construction (directly below), defined in opposition to "unpleasant" "noise", though this view may be subsumed in the one below in that a listener's idea of pleasant sounds may be considered socially constructed. A subjective definition of music need not, however, be limited to traditional ideas of music as pleasant or melodious. This approach to the definition focuses not on the construction but on the experience of music. Thus, music could include "found" sound structures—produced by natural phenomena or algorithms—as long as they are interpreted by means of the aesthetic cognitive processes involved in music appreciation. This approach permits the boundary between music and noise to change over time as the conventions of musical interpretation evolve within a culture, to be different in different cultures at any given moment, and to vary from person to person according to their experience and proclivities. It is further consistent with the subjective reality that even what would commonly be considered music is experienced as nonmusic if the mind is concentrating on other matters and thus not perceiving the sound's essence as music (Clifton 1983, 9).

Social construct
Post-modern and other theories argue that, like all art, music is defined primarily by social context. According to this view, music is what people call music, whether it is a period of silence, found sounds, or performance. Cage, Kagel, Schnebel, and others, according to Nattiez (1987, 43), "perceive [certain of their pieces] (even if they do not say so publicly) as a way of "speaking" in music about music, in the second degree, as it were, to expose or denounce the institutional aspect of music's functioning."Cultural background is a factor in determining music from noise or unpleasant experiences. The experience of only being exposed to a particular type of music influences perception of any music. Cultures of European descent are largely influenced by music making use of the Diatonic scale.

It might be added that as well as cultural background, historical era is also a determining factor in what is regarded as music. What would today be accepted as music in the west without the blinking of an eye, would have been ridiculed in the 17th century. would almost certainly not have been music to William Congreve, who wrote that, "Musick has Charms to sooth a savage Beast" (The Mourning Bride, 1697). Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: "the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity" (Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, online edition). There are a number of potential objections to such a definition.

The composer John Cage challenged traditional ideas about music in his 4' 33", which is notated as three movements, each marked Tacet (that is, "do not play").

Musical universals
Often a definition of music lists the aspects or elements that make up music under that definition (see Definition of music#As musical universals). However, in addition to a lack of consensus, Jean Molino (1975, 43) also points out that "any element belonging to the total musical fact can be isolated, or taken as a strategic variable of musical production." Nattiez gives as examples Mauricio Kagel's Con Voce [with voice], where a masked trio silently mimes playing instruments.

Following Wittgenstein, cognitive psychologist Eleanor Rosch proposes that categories are not clean cut but that something may be more or less a member of a category (Rosch 1973, 328). As such the search for musical universals would fail and would not provide one with a valid definition (Levitin 2006, 136–39).

Specific definitions

Clifton
In his 1983 book, Music as Heard, which sets out from the phenomenological position of Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, and Ricœur, Thomas Clifton defines music as "an ordered arrangement of sounds and silences whose meaning is presentative rather than denotative. . . . This definition distinguishes music, as an end in itself, from compositional technique, and from sounds as purely physical objects." More precisely, "music is the actualization of the possibility of any sound whatever to present to some human being a meaning which he experiences with his body—that is to say, with his mind, his feelings, his senses, his will, and his metabolism" (Clifton 1983, 1). It is therefore "a certain reciprocal relation established between a person, his behavior, and a sounding object" (Clifton 1983, 10).

Clifton accordingly differentiates music from nonmusic on the basis of the human behavior involved, rather than on either the nature of compositional technique or of sounds as purely physical objects. Consequently, the distinction becomes a question of what is meant by musical behavior: "a musically behaving person is one whose very being is absorbed in the significance of the sounds being experienced." However, "It is not altogether accurate to say that this person is listening to the sounds. First, the person is doing more than listening: he is perceiving, interpreting, judging, and feeling. Second, the preposition 'to' puts too much stress on the sounds as such. Thus, the musically behaving person experiences musical significance by means of, or through, the sounds" (Clifton 1983, 2).

In this framework, Clifton finds that there are two things that separate music from nonmusic: (1) musical meaning is presentative, and (2) music and nonmusic are distinguished in the idea of personal involvement. "It is the notion of personal involvement which lends significance to the word ordered in this definition of music" (Clifton 1983, 3–4). This is not to be understood, however, as a sanctification of extreme relativism, since "it is precisely the 'subjective' aspect of experience which lured many writers earlier in this century down the path of sheer opinion-mongering. Later on this trend was reversed by a renewed interest in 'objective,' scientific, or otherwise nonintrospective musical analysis. But we have good reason to believe that a musical experience is not a purely private thing, like seeing pink elephants, and that reporting about such an experience need not be subjective in the sense of it being a mere matter of opinion" (Clifton 1983, 8–9).

Clifton's task, then, is to describe musical experience and the objects of this experience which, together, are called "phenomena," and the activity of describing phenomena is called "phenomenology" (Clifton 1983, 9). It is important to stress that this definition of music says nothing about aesthetic standards.

Music is not a fact or a thing in the world, but a meaning constituted by human beings. . . . To talk about such experience in a meaningful way demands several things. First, we have to be willing to let the composition speak to us, to let it reveal its own order and significance. . . . Second, we have to be willing to question our assumptions about the nature and role of musical materials. . . . Last, and perhaps most important, we have to be ready to admit that describing a meaningful experience is itself meaningful. (Clifton 1983, 5–6)

Nattiez
"Music, often an art/entertainment, is a total social fact whose definitions vary according to era and culture," according to Jean Molino (1975, 37). It is often contrasted with noise. According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez: "The border between music and noise is always culturally defined—which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be" (Nattiez 1990, 47–8 and 55). Given the above demonstration that "there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical," (Molino, 1987, 42)[citation needed] an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.

Nattiez (1990, 17; see sign (semiotics)) describes definitions according to a tripartite semiological scheme similar to the following:
Poietic Process Esthesic Process
Composer (Producer) → Sound (Trace) ← Listener (Receiver)

There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic:

• "By 'poietic' I understand describing the link among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the result of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape."
• "By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies." (Nattiez 1990, 90)
• The neutral level is that of the physical "trace", (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or "social" construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).
  

Xenakis
Composer Iannis Xenakis in "Towards a Metamusic" (chapter 7 of Xenakis 1971) defined music in the following way:

1. It is a sort of comportment necessary for whoever thinks it and makes it.
2. It is an individual plemora, a realization.
3. It is a fixing in sound of imagined virtualities (cosmological, philosophical, . . . , arguments)
4. It is normative, that is, unconsciously it is a model for being or for doing by sympathetic drive.
5. It is catalytic: its mere presence permits internal psychic or mental transformations in the same way as the crystal ball of the hypnotist.
6. It is the gratuitous play of a child.
7. It is a mystical (but atheistic) asceticism. Consequently expressions of sadness, joy, love and dramatic situations are only very limited particular instances.

Theory Of Memory (Part 9)

5.3 Genetic foundation and the origin of language

If until now, memory proposes unresolved questions, with language these questions are multiplied.

Nevertheless, some guidelines can be presented about the factors that take part in language, especially in the books on evolutionary genetics and the origin of language.


Memory depends on its genetic structure and on the manager's power over this structure or intelligence; therefore, its efficiency will be the result of the effects of complementariness produced.

The following can be cited from what has been set out in the book about intelligence and the previous sections on memory of the Global Cognitive Theory :

Linguistic Intelligence
This type of intelligence operates with a degree of reduced reliability in comparison to logical math intelligence, even with the intuition mode.

It deals with the type of extra rapid responses of intelligence such as the origin of language.

Linguistic memory
Regardless of the existence of short, medium, and long-term linguistic memory, linguistic memories with greater or lesser degree of reliability, and memories of subjects or special situations of a linguistic nature, it can be said that the general nature of this memory is that it does not require exact words selected when speaking.

On the other hand, now is not the time to go any deeper into the aspect of written language, although the ideas and arguments would be similar.

It can be observed that the velocity of speaking immediately reduces if we try to express ourselves with greater precision.

In short, the merging of intelligence and linguistic memory produces spectacular results in language.

In the book of The Global Theory of the Conditioned Evolution of Life, it is stated:

There is a famous philosophical trend that suggests a strong genetic component of language. The linguist, Noam Chomsky, is the most important representative of this trend known as innateness, in contrast to the trend of constructivism. A long time ago Chomsky confirmed having identified common elements in all of the human languages, which implied a genetic predisposition to language development.

As far as the origin of language, I agree with the idea of a genetic base of language but without denying the other side of the coin : not all humans have the same predisposition in quantitive terms. For, otherwise, it would be like the work of divine creation.

The human brain still needs years of development in order to acquire a good control of language and, even so, it cannot be denied that there are vast and obvious differences in the command of language of some humans.

Even if this other aspect seems less attractive at first, the effort of looking for its beauty will surely bring enormous benefits.

In spite of appearances, with the theory of Natural Selection as well as with the GTCEL, we will analyze how language should have an unidentical genetic base for all individuals.

The Global Theory of Conditional Evolution of Life clearly proposes an almost absolute genetic foundation and, consequently, the differences found in individuals are due to genetic differences.

But if we examine the Mendelian genetic evolution with the essential Darwinist Theory we also arrive to similar results. Reasonably so, no one in the science community can deny that Darwin’s great contribution is that man comes from ape.

That is, the linguistic capacity has developed from a very primitive stage, let’s say that of primates, to more developed stages. Then, if, for example, we standarize the number of words to a variation of one to a thousand, we are left with discovering how this number has been able to evolve throughout history.

One by one we will examine the following aspects that have had an influence and their possible effects.

Genetic derivation or accumulation
Including random mutations due to natural selection, those that produce a comparative advantage will have more descendants. That is, small random increases in the linguistic capacity will tend to establish themselves genetically.

Rate of increase due to evolutionary genetics
Despite recognizing that the rate could have varied due to physiological changes that benefitted language, it cannot be denied that such changes will have required quite a few generations in order to reach the whole human population.

Furthermore, it is unreasonable to believe that the change of one to a thousand in our standardized scale could have been produced in the first steps of the Homo Sapiens when in which, it is the contrary; that is, a change of ten in the last one thousand years would mean an increase of one percent while in the first thousand years of the Homo Sapiens would have meant a thousand percent.

Therefore, due to the proportionality and the randomness, it is to be expected that the percentage change have a tendency to balance out despite the possible variations previously mentioned.

Variability of existing languages

I do not know the specific calculations for the number of words in the current languages but I imagine they vary quite a bit, and I also suppose that the very concept of a word would pose an significant problem for such calculations.

Evolutionary advantages
Given that language implies an obvious comparative advantage, it is to be expected that it has increased to its maximum or permited rate due to the established genetics of the produced variations, whatever their theoretical causes may be.

Exponential growth
From all that we have mentioned it can be deduced that growth will have continued an exponential pattern with greater or lesser rate at certain times.

Subsequently, the greater increases in absolute terms have been produced during the last one or two thousand years, keeping in mind that the current Homo Sapiens have only been in existance during 50,000 years (in rounded figures).

It is true that the halt of Western civilization of the first five hundred years of the Christian calendar partly contradicts the previous arguments. But it must be understood such as how the Roman and Greek cultures were a very reduced genetic foundation in population and in the process of expansion, they ceased being visible during a long period of time due to reasons relating to this genetic configuration of the operations that maintained the intellectual capacities.

In conclusion, to point out that the language genetic base is indisputable and that the relative importance that is attributed to it depends on the temporal and population scale of the analysis, in the long run, it would be absolute either with a theory of evolution or another.

In the short-term, on an indivual level it would be almost complete with the GTCEL and with Darwin’s theory rather reduced.

Nevertheless, in my opinion, in the case of the Homo Sapien language, the Darwinist Theory fails given that it would need a long-term that has not existed. It has only two thousand generations to produce positive mutations, establish genetics, and it for it to spread to the entire population; and only forty of them in the last thousand years.

In any case, the weakened exponential growth seems contrived; which is explained in the expounded theory.

Theory Of Memory (Part 8)

5. Evolutionary genetics and neuroscience

5.1 Brain memory inheritance

The verification of inheritability of memory requires a much more complicated model than that of intelligence unless measurements of partial capacities can be obtained. For example, the effect of simple complementariness would have to be isolated between memory and intelligence. The effect of complex complementariness is that which is produced by the intervention of intelligence in the processes of the global information system of the human memory.

Another factor could be the different potentials of the memory's stratum or of special memories. Neuroscience should provide models of the brain’s functioning that allow analyzing in greater detail, but despite the advances being produced it seems that a concrete model still does not exist.


Genetic combination following Mendel Laws witout the Genetic Information Verification Method.

In any case, the model of genetic inheritance for normal memory would be similar to that of intuition in the sense of negatively supposing the hypothesis of the received verification of genetic information.

The following figure shows us the effect on the capacities of possible descendents that are supposedly contrary to the VGI method. The expression of the capacities will follow an additive mathematical law in place of a law of intersection.

5.2 The simple complementary effect

The verification of heretability of memory requires a much more complicated model than that of intelligence unless measurements of partial capacities can be obtained. For example, the first effect of complementariness would have to be isolated between memory and intelligence.

Another factor could be the different potentials of the memory's stratum of special memories.


Memory depends on its genetic structure and on the manager's power over this structure or intelligence; therefore, its efficiency will be the result of the effects of complementariness produced.

In any case, the model of genetic inheritance for normal memory would be similar to that of intuition in the sense of negatively supposing the hypothesis of the of received genetic information verification.

The figure shows us the effect on the capacities of possible descendents that are supposedly contrary to the VGI method. The expression of the capacities will follow an additive law in place of a law of intersection.

Theory Of Memory (Part 7)

4. Human brain memory

The memory manager, intelligence, uses a lot of methods and processes to classify, organize, and rationalize the information contained in the brain memory. Below we are going to state the most important ones among the many that should exist :

4.1 Automatic memory and directed memory

Up until now we have talked about the memory's automatic operation mechanisms; indubitably, you can influence which information is saved and which is not.

The fact that the more someone studies a subject the more he/she retains is nothing new. However the operation of the transfer from short-term to medium-term memory is unconscious, the brain detects interest according to the number of times it has dealt with a subject.

An important leap occurs when a subject has been dealt with on different days in order to memorize certain information. The memory manager will then find references to the subject in the most superficial layers of medium-term memory, and there will automatically exist a tendency to save more securely, or, in other words, in the next layers of medium-term memory.

Another important leap will be made when the memory manager requires the saved information and the brain realises the limitations of the information, understanding that better availability of the information would be convenient, therefore tending to improve the availability in the medium-term memory. It will also start to establish the information in the multidimensional system, creating the needed references.

When trying to pass an exam, the provision of some artificial references for better information retention could significantly help medium-term memory. Specifically, we are referring to certain mnemonic devices.

Useful examples are marking dates, figures, percentages, and similar information that are very mathematical with a special colour, authors with another colour, definitions with another, etc., but without using too many colours or other mnemonic devices! Maximum four or five.

However, sometimes, in spite of our effort and the knowledge that we are capable of doing so, it seems that human memory does not respond - that it refuses to work. The most common reasons could be :

• Not sleeping enough.
• Excessive consumption of alcohol, and to a lesser extent, tobacco.
• A true lack of interest.
• Being very tense when studying, which notably limits the capacity used by the memory manager either when awake or when sleeping.
• The information will not be used in the future or at least not in the way it is being memorized. A typical example is the learning of languages that are not going to be used or attempt to learn them in math memory because languages are normally developed in linguistic memory.

The tensions mentioned in the previous paragraphs should not be confused with the situation of a student who has various exams very close together or an exam of a very lengthy subject.

Before the exam students are very nervous, excessively nervous, and they also feel like they do not know anything. These nerves are caused when short-term memory is overloaded for its normal state -a lot of effort is demanded, and nervous tension is probably the only way to allow this overload in these circumstances. Along with the mentioned feeling of not knowing anything, people also become more nervous when they cannot stop thinking about the exam's subject.

However, once the questions are known, nervousness disappears -a multitude of concepts vanish from the mind and it begins to fill with information related to the questions. The more some of the questions are thought about, the more information continues to appear, always if and when a person is really familiar with the subject, otherwise.

It is worth pointing out the existing connection between the previously cited reasons behind a possible malfunctioning of the human brain memory with the reasons that could provoke dysfunctions in the decision-making system, which we comment on in another section independent from this book.

This coincidence can be explained by thinking about the effect that can be had on brain memory if every time we study or think about a subject, we try to save it, consciously or unconsciously, in a different group of references.

4.2 Pre-established logic blocks or structures

In the study of rapid response development of intelligence, we stated that brain power notably increments with its automation. One of its causes was that entry information is placed directly in the prepared fields of the subprograms or functions, and once all the information has been received the specific operation was automatically launched.

In short, this development implies the development of structures or fields pre-established for information treatment. In the system of global information, these same structures would be used, if needed, for the storage or saving of information.

The development and improvement of these brain information structures can also be directed at actively involving the individual in the system's efficiency process.

Computer programs continually use this technique, organizing the information in groups of personalized fields that, in the final analysis, are information matrixes.

Theory Of Memory (Part 6)

3.4 Data integrity

3.4.1. Compression of information
Now that we have commented on the types of memory, as you get further into the layers of brain memory, the nature of the information changes into a multidimensional system, or similarly, the information being compressed.

This process takes time and the memory manager needs to use a lot of its power. Normally, it not only deals with information compression, but rather with its decompression, its analysis, and comparison with new information. Then it deals with its re-compression after having looked for more appropriate dimensional references for information saving and future localization.

When you think about something that you have not thought about for a while, you may feel like the information is appearing out of nowhere, as if you were putting two and two together for the first time.

When you retrieve or become conscious of information or a concept, it seems as if the brain were continuing to retrieve elements associated with the stated information or concept at the same time. At certain times you can even visualize information and concepts like an explosion of data that are more and more precise in relation to what you were speaking or thinking about. Obviously, this retrieval depends on the length of time that has gone by since the last time that you thought about the specific subject and your necessity to continue thinking about it.

New computers, with their best techniques, keep becoming more and more similar to the brain. With their current processing speed they can start to automatically compress information that is not habitually used; before, decompression of a source of compressed information, if needed, would have been too slow.

Below we will analyse an illustrative example of elderly people who, often say the following sentences :

• I don't remember what I said five minutes ago.
• I don't remember what I ate yesterday.
• Strange, but I always remember perfectly when twenty years ago.

A reasonable explanation could be the following :

• Over time it becomes more difficult to compress more information that has already been compressed previously. This larger compression is considered necessary to free space in the brain memory given that throughout a person's life, it is assumed that he/she has used all available memory.
• Also, the gradual loss of an organism's vital energy with age, or any other problem, makes the compression mechanism less powerful.
• Logically, there comes a time when a part of the stored information needs to be erased in order to save news or a recent act.
• When in this situation, if someone decides to save new information, compressed information from during a lifetime will never be erased, unless the new information is very important. Normally information contained in the first or second superficial memory layers will be erased first.
• Another related aspect that we have already commented on is that older people do not need as much sleep.

We are talking about normal problems that come with age, but obviously in some cases the symptoms are much more serious and produce memory loss that can lead to dementia or diseases such as Alzheimer.

Of course, like in all complex processes, having little memory or not exercising specific sources of compressed information properly is positively correlated to Alzheimer.

3.4.2. Degradation of information storage
Another already known method in our culture is the degradation of information when it is compressed.

When computers compress an image in Bmp format to Jpg format, either no information is lost or a certain degree of information is lost, but nonetheless the new file has been significantly reduced.

Sensory memory, in particular, requires the actions of degradation in order to reduce the enormous amount of information that is received, such as when we think about music and songs, films, videos, etc.

3.4.3 Reconstruction of information
Corresponding to the phenomenon of the information degradation, there is also reconstruction of compressed or degraded information storage when required by the memory manager.

As we know, this phenomenon may convince a person of the existence of an act or a specific aspect because his/her memory says it exists when it actually does not. It may seem as if this person were lying, but, in fact, he/she is confused even though he/she may not be aware of this confusion.

Theory Of Memory (Part 5)

3.3 Reliability of the memory information system

By speaking about intelligence we have already anticipated the conceptual relations between logic and math memory, intuition, and normal memory, and between language and linguistic memory, dealing with the different operational forms of intelligence as a relational capacity and of intelligence as a manager of memory information system, and ways of transmitting such information.

Math memory, which demands certainty in responses from the biological information system, should behave just like logical math intelligence in that it demands reliability. However, it would not be surprising if other types of memory, such as normal memory or the capacity related to language -that characteristically admit errors and approximation- were a consequence of the same genetic information that acts to create math memory, yet under the assumption contrary to that of external verification of the information.

That is, our brain constructs genetic codes from both parents and when operating certain processes like normal memory, it does not require the certainty of responses.

On the other hand, memory proposes additional problems given its own nature of storing information and the problems or characteristics of the information system manager.

It is also clear that very special memories exist with equally special managers, whose internal functioning is presently practically unknown in neuroscience. We are not referring to the parts of the brain that are activated or not in specific activities but rather the biological mechanisms that are developed from a functional point of view. We can cite linguistic, visual, and musical memory among others.

Although we have been using the term math memory, I think that the term secure mode memory in the transmission of information is more precise. Likewise, but without trying to create a closed typology, we could refer to probable mode when the required reliability is high but not at its maximum, and possible mode when this reliability is relatively low.

Theory Of Memory (Part 4)

3.2 Persistence of brain memory

3.2.1. Short-term memory
All the information that has been dealt with since the last time the system was cleaned or maintenance was performed will be found in this memory, that is, since the last time a person slept enough time to perform this task.

The degree of conservation or state of the information will depend on the mentioned time and, of course, on the physiological or genetic capacity of each individual.

This memory will be fed mainly on the data that has gone through the auxiliary working memory, both from medium and long-term memory, and the experience and reasoning during normal life through our perception.

Due to historical evolution, this memory is most efficient for approximately 16 hours, reserving 8 hours daily for its maintenance. Probably not all the time that we sleep is used to clean short-term memory; a significant amount of time is also dedicated to the transfer of information from medium-term to long-term memory (to state it simply), and other diverse maintenance functions.

There are short-term memory cleaning systems that are highly recommended and others that are strongly advised against. Just say the first will not be easy to obtain if there are elements in the short-term memory that generate tensions and demand the individual's attention. In regards to the latter, the effects of abusive ingestion of alcohol can be used as an example; this can in turn give us an idea of the effects of non-abusive but counterproductive ingestion, especially for the information contained in this memory.

3.2.2. Medium-term memory
Maintaining information as organised as possible is a way of optimising the information contained in short-term memory; this will probably make us take in a lot of information that we cannot organize immediately but that we can store to deal with and order afterwards. This eliminates duplicated information and permanently saves information, or similar concepts for reference, and, in this way, saves a large quantity of the memory's capacity or information archive.

In the future, it is very likely that computers will always be functioning, whether by running requested programs or by reorganizing themselves.

We can already cite programs that can be run automatically: defragmenting and maintenance of the hard drive, cleaning of the Windows system log, search for and downloading of news or any type of program, information compression, anti-virus, etc.

The expression of medium-term memory is useful but does not precisely reflect the nature of its content.

The information that is retained for a rather long time is found in this memory. But this period of time is larger because the information is more relational and contains less concrete information. That is, the information can be obtained not only directly, but rather by its relation to other information also saved in the memory.

In this respect, independently from whether certain information is saved in the memory in its original state, (like the birthday of someone you are close to) medium-term memory tends to be more fixed as the information is transformed into concepts and these are defined by the base of a system of multi-dimensional references.

Over time, concepts will only remain in the indicated form; precise information usually ceases being useful or, if relevant, becomes a part of instantaneous memory and the memorized relations tend to be incorporated into the cited multidimensional system. And if required, a new dimension will be added in the system.

All of these processes are not free from errors; the mechanisms that are good in the majority of cases can turn out to be totally inadequate for others.

One of the circumstances that concerns me the most occurs when an act or an idea is repeated many times during a certain period, and especially when it appears or is proposed as a hypothesis that develops in various ways. In accordance with normal mechanisms in the brain, this act or idea will be saved in layers that go deeper and deeper into our brain memory.

Afterwards, when our memory accesses this information, it will be likely to interpret this as its own already accepted information because it is found in a deep layer.

The error can be significant -a strange idea is supplanting our true knowledge or feelings!
It is called brainwashing and it is likely to occur, for example, when we read a book that repeats something thousands of times. Each time we read it, the brain has enough time to memorize the idea or transfer it to a deeper layer. Of course, this effect depends on the ideas and the individuals.

3.2.3. Long-term memory
This expression is more correct than the previous one in that it clearly implies long-term, but also needs some clarification as far as its nature.

If medium-term memory is configured like a multidimensional system, long-term memory is formed independently of the famous 'birthday' by an exclusively multidimensional system in which there are less dimensions than in medium-term memory, and these are the base of the essential character of a person, not of their knowledge. We are referring to what is commonly known as general personalized principles such as justice, equality, liberty, respect, education, benefit of the doubt, etc.

Knowledge or concepts are found ordered in the deepest medium-term memory layers, or otherwise stated, in the most superficial layers of long-term memory.

The necessity to re-adapt these principles to a greater or lesser extent is an interesting effect that occurs in personality growth and development. Obviously, the unconsciousness does not like the idea; changing these principles supposes, to some extent, the recognition of some errors in them; this is a large task because all of the remaining memory will be changed and will need to be readjusted. These will probably be periods in which the person will sleep more than he/she is used to.

In line with the question, this vision is coherent with the fact that people sleep less as they get older in normal conditions.

3.2.4. Vital memory
Here, we are not referring to a visual or emotional memory but rather a very special type of memory of visual-emotional nature that can be compared to extra-fast movies when a person thinks there is a certain probability that he/she will die in a matter of seconds. The content varies from person to person but usually tends to be a sequence of very symbolic emotive images in chronological order.

Another type of super special and super persistant memory could be the genetic memory which contains all of the genetic information transmitted to the descendents.

Theory Of Memory (Part 3)

3. Brain memory types

Below, various classifications or types of memory are presented according to the different criteria.

The aforementioned presentation does not have an exhaustive nor exclusive character. Some brain memory types do not appear and those mentioned may appear in various categories, for I have tried to keep the exposition as clear as possible.

We all know that brain memory has diverse degrees of temporal retention of data. Over time, the information that our memory provides us with disappears. Other information is harder for us to find in our memory and it is not as exact as it was previously. Other information is not only inexact, but rather we can tell that, in reality, we are reconstructing the data from little information, etc.

We will examine each of these categories and their brain memory types in greater detail:

3.1 Conscious cognitive processes

3.1.1. Instantaneous memory
It is formed by all information that is accessible in real time, immediately. Although it may seem otherwise, this brain memory is very large; all the information that we constantly use in our daily life is found here. We will look at some of its main components:

• Normal information such as where things are located, pending tasks, routines, etc.
• The preconceptions that make up a part of our character or personality.
• Automatic response programs that are loaded in a short period of time when we wake up. Linguistic memory and other special brain memories also form a part of this instantaneous memory when they have been activated.
• Special automatic response programs like driving or those that correspond to dangerous situations that are loaded when considered useful.
• Working memory associated with the operation of logic or intelligence. This memory is very limited and its optimum operation implies the use of 3 or 4 variables simultaneously; when thinking about a concept and performing logical operations with more than 5 variables, it takes a long time to advance.
• The auxiliary working memory corresponds to all the variables that are available to be located in the operative working memory cited in the previous paragraph. All the information known about the subject we are working with pertains to this category.

This configuration's automatism allows for the simultaneous performance of various tasks; the human consciousness could be assimilated to the computer's interface and the unconsciousness with programs residing in the instantaneous memory. Therefore, the more the cerebral processes or the computer programs are automated, the freer the human consciousness, or the simpler and more intuitive the program's interface will be.

However, this simplicity is accompanied by a disadvantage that is good to keep in mind; computer's automatism sometimes does not let us know exactly what it has done or why. It is always necessary to have general knowledge of how computers work, and the only way to have this is with practice and time.

3.1.2. Specialized memory
In this category we can include the types of special brain memory for automatic loading in instantaneous memory that also form part of long-term memory; although they are not as compressed as this memory, and have their own multidimensional systems of reference.

The following are examples of special memories: linguistic memory, certain visual memory, the archive of the preconceptions, and pre-established quick response programs such as emotions.

I would say that emotions are not directly recalled, rather that they are directly felt. People can remember that they felt a certain emotion and reproduce it by recalling the original factors. Of course, it is quite possible that the same feelings will not be produced.

Theory Of Memory (Part 2)

2. How to improve brain memory

What is memory? Memory is a mechanism that records, stores, and classifies information, making its subsequent retrieval possible. Strictly speaking, we can identify it with the capacity to save but we already know that this saving is as important as the contents and structure of the information.

How to improve any intellectual capability is always a recurrent topic. In this case, the first thing to keep in mind is the number of factors that influence the normal functioning of brain memory. Throughout this book we will analyze the different types of memory according to the various perspectives and we will see how each of them has some characteristics that can help improve the performance of memory.

A second very important aspect is to understand that improving an intellectual or physical ability does not mean that a human can acquire the ability to fly or anything of the sort. It is to say, we must bear in mind that there are established aspects in the brain configuration due to genetics and the early development that act as limits to the intellectual power.

Instead of how to improve memory it would be better to say how to exercise this brain capacity in a way that its natural possibilities of learning are made the most of. From this point of view, the best advice is that an appropriate intellectual exercise will always be healthy. However, it should be remembered that even if we are not studying the lists of elements, or the Visigoth kings, or the rivers and their tributaries, normally memory is always working because the brain does not tend to cease too often.

For this reason, when I say exercises, I am referring to something other than a memorizing effort but to trying to forcibly remember everything all day. With the general educational system, I believe that the human memory is sufficiently exercised at least while attending school or university; furthermore, it seems that it is generating a certain accelerated evolution of the human brain capacity from one generation to another.

It should also be pointed out that a great part of brain memory is attained unconsciously and we do not have many ways of manipulating it except facilitating the conditions of its performance or, better said, trying not to interrupt its normal functioning.

It maintained that the entire third book of the Global Cognitive Theory deals with how to improve brain memory; nevertheless, I want to cite the following aspects here for their special significance:

• An interesting aspect is that memory functions much more efficiently when something is learned in a pleasant and relaxed environment. We all know that memory is selective and that we remember pleasant things much better and that we hardly remember the bad times; this effect is accentuated the older the memories are.
• A complementary yet opposite aspect is that, when we are nervous, memory works very poorly, confusing almost everything. It is important that certain topics are discussed with as much calmness as possible, because otherwise, objective information starts to become confused, and there is no human way to reason or understand the emotions.

It seems as if the large quantity of resources that the memory manager was consuming were not found free, that it would not function adequately.

Theory Of Memory (Part 1)

1. Brain memory

This online book of the Global Cognitive Theory is dedicated to memory. This is the second main brain function or better said, the other side of the same coin that represents human brain. Firstly, the different layers or strata in which we think memory is structured are stated; secondly, some of the ways intelligence (as the memory manager) manages information are analysed.

In another section, the interaction between the capacity for storing information of the brain and the capacity for managing this storage are investigated. Within reason, some complementary effects will occur between the two. The overall efficiency in the management of information will therefore be somewhat more complicated to study than that of intelligence.

Consequently, the empirical study of the structural facets and their possible genetic nature will be fairly more complicated, even if we were to have precise methods of evaluation for the power of memory.

The section of related links, just above the index, includes the four online books of the Global Cognitive Theory :

• The brain and modern computers.
• Intelligence, intuition and creativity.
• Memory, language and other brain abilities.
• The will, decision making process and artificial intelligence.

Another related link is referred to the online book of the Global Theory of the Conditional Evolution of Life.

There is also a link to the on-line book of the Global Scientific Method and the philosophy of science. It includes the design of new scientific methods and the classification of the stages and steps of the scientific method; understanding the scientific method in the broad sense as the application of logic to the generation of common knowledge with a high level of reliability.

The scientific method works fine in general, but it works much better in its developmental phase than in its phase of general acceptance. All types of social interests affect the last phase, from the realm of sociology as in the case of Darwin’s theory, to the technician nature as in the case of the Theory of Relativity.

The last item of the related links is The EDI Study about Evolution and Design of Intelligence, a complete statistical survey on the heritability of intelligence performed on the fieldwork database of the Young Adulthood Study, 1939-1967.

This statistical study is an empirical research about some considerations of the Global Cognitive Theory related with the brain and evolution, in particular the definition of intelligence.

The results of the statistical survey The EDI Study regarding an elegant intelligence show some important considerations :

• The hereditary nature of relational intelligence is confirmed.
• The genetic information with less intellectual potential is the significant one, as the GTCEL states regarding the concept of conditional intelligence.
• Likewise, it seems that the main functions of intelligence, or those evolving faster, are fairly concentrated in only one chromosome.
• The most innovative element of this work on cognitive psychology is undoubtedly the section relating to simulation. This section contains the explanation of how the artificial intelligence quotient vectors are generated by using the previsions of the new theory of evolution; they practically behave like the variables that were actually observed, in despite of the intrinsic complexity involved.
• As if that were not enough, with the due caution this subject deserves, the existence of a finalistic or teleological evolution is scientifically proven to agree with that indicated by the General Theory of Conditional Evolution of Life.

Given that the current results in this book suggest a fairly radical change from the common opinions held by the majority of the scientific community and society, the logical deduction is that more extensive studies on cognitive psychology using the same methodology need to be performed.

An example of further exploration of this study is found in the section that has been added subsequently, which is related to partner choice and intelligence. In this section a hypothesis regarding a concrete requisite of the acceptable limit of the difference in intelligence when forming a couple, is confirmed and simultaneously reinforces the model's overall coherence. In fact, the requirement refers to the unconscious choice of an unknown intelligence for current cognitive psychology.

Brain Ability That Amaze

A lot doesn't realize that has strength very amaze. Human brain can at example strong giant. Various experiment that done by saints prove potential far brain greater from what at suspects. Follow neurologist, human not yet use overall from potential brain actually. Even their quest is very latest shows only use less than 1% brain ability actually.

This means human doesn't use 99% potential brain very great. Very lost if" treasure" very valuable this is at let dusty, is not used, uncared and is not developed. Has 10,000,000,000 adult brain (ten billion) neuron or nerve cell. A bee that has 900 neuron can to make various work result astonishing. He can to make waxy nest, processed honey that identified as medicine 'king, bring to enter fresh air into nest, controls temperature and light in the nest, produce cleaner liquid to nest cleaning, analyze light, communicating, and still many again.

Human that has ten billion neuron sure has ability millions time bigger than bee ability. Try to conceive one who has RP 900 sure can buy a certain. how with one who has RP10,000,000,000? sure he has ability and 'authority buy's far greater. he can buy everything optionally the heart. he can buy pizza, fried chicken at KFC, carriage and jet plane even also can he buy.

Such potential and human brain ability. The problem now, we don't realize that us has ability really great. We are parable the poor doesn't realize that be breed inheritance pay dirt stored house invaluable the price.

If potential this brain is really developed and makes use, we shall be a clever super and can to remember everything without forget. How many person clever Islam that can to make use potential their brain to learns 6,666 holy book verses and learn by heart tens book found thousands sentence. They remember books complete with chapter, yard, verse, line, and even comma. Besides has power memorizes steady, they have remarkable cleverness such as those which operative to Moslem leader Ghazali, Moslem leader Syarie, Ibnu Farabi, Ibnu Sina and others.


Is memory that?
Memory brain process to keep information hits world. This process aim gives comprehension hits to who our self. Stored information in has specific and individual because every unique human.

How does memory procedure?
scientists has studied memory process in detail by using various technique. they have detected that memory divisible into three principal stages:
1. code --> get information.
2. depositor --> keep information.
3. taking --> find information from repository moment at beed.

human memory very organize and memory doesn't work self, many factors that influence it, like concentration, planning and organize play role of vital importance in memory function. also can be influenced by age factor, sex and even idea condition (mood). and actually whatever that influence also influence memory, food kind for example, alcohol, read, and or pregnancy will influence memory differently.

in article next i shall elaborate some ways to will maximize potential recall so that potential that has that human brain not worn out and dusty.

The Great Diaspora: How early humans discovered the world ?

Civilization, as we think of it today, is a mere 6,000 years or so old. Few of us know where our ancestors were living 6,000 years ago, although most of us could make educated guesses. Modern Americans generally think of 6,000 years ago (4,000 BC) as a very long time ago, but anthropologists, geologists and certainly astrophysicists would take a different few. Civilization may have appeared very recently, but our human species (called hominids) appeared much, much earlier. Good scientific evidence shows that people have been around for at least 100,000 years, possibly 4 million years, depending on what animal you mean when you say "people."

Our species is called homo sapiens. It means "double wise human." there have been two general types of homo sapiens : archaic and modern. The modern form began around 35,000 years ago, but there is something of a controversy about when the archaic form first appeared. Suffice it to say that none of us, should we find the body of an archaic homo sapiens, could tell the difference between it and a modern one. It would take a good forensic anthropologist to do so.

Although we are now the only living member of the genus "homo," in times past we have had several close relatives. They had names like homo heidelburgensis, homo sapiens neandertalensis, homo erectus and homo habilis. They were much like us. They were highly intelligent, walked upright on two legs, made and used tools. They even built simple villages (in the case of neanderthal and heidelburgensis). The most ancient of these cousins of ours, homo habilis, was quite a bit shorter than we are today, but if you found a homo habiline skeleton in your backyard, you’d probably assume it was just a small modern human. Only a good coroner or a forensic anthropologist could tell the difference. The thickness of the skull, the thickness of the tooth enamel, the size of the teeth and the size of the brain would provide distinguishing clues. But the overall appearance of all these creatures is very human, and they are contained within the same genus (homo) as we.

Homo habilis first appeared around 2.4 million years ago. Dinosaurs had been extinct for over 60 million years at the time, and there had been a series of human-like ancestors before homo habilis. But homo habilis was unique among all the then-living primates. Only homo habilis made and used tools. While chimps are known to strip twigs off of branches to make "fishing" rods for ants, and to pound food with rocks or to throw rocks at selected targets (including each other), homo habilis was rather more sophisticated. Homo habilis selected rocks with care and chipped their edges to make scrapers, founders, diggers and other tools for foraging. Homo habilis did not hunt and did not possess even a simple ax or knife. Homo habilis lived only in africa, in the great rift valley south of Egypt. Homo habilis shared his world with rhinos, hippos, giraffes and other African animals.

Around 1.7 million years ago, one of homo habilis’s descendants grew taller and smarter. The first ice age was just ending, and apparently the difficult weather conditions of that period left only the bigger and smarter hominids alive. While homo erectus’s brain was not quite as big as ours, it was almost as large and contained the early buds of the two specialized brain centers responsible for speech: broca’s brain and wernecke’s brain. Anatomists believe that homo erectus’s voice box was much more primitive than ours, so it could only utter a few sounds. But chimps and gorillas have a fairly complex language of sounds, signals and gestures, by which they can communicate up to 200 separate concepts. Certainly, homo erectus managed language better than a chimp or a gorilla. Homo erectus’s brain was fully four times as big as a chimp’s. Homo erectus stood six feet tall and lived an athletic, active lifestyle in the savannas of Africa. He scavenged and hunted big game, learning to scare herd animals like antelope and buffalo off of cliffs or into bogs, where he could club and kill them. Homo erectus’s big contribution to the human toolkit was the handax. This crude tool had no shaft, and, as its name implies, was handheld. But it was sharp and deadly. As the millennia rolled on, homo erectus learned that certain rocks (flint, quartz, obsidian) made far better tools than others, and learned to flake both edges of oval-shaped rocks into points that look a great deal like arrowheads. The technology needed to mount a spear- or arrowhead on a shaft was thousands of years away, but homo erectus flourished with his new toolkit, which contained primitive knives, punches, awls and grinders as well as the tools that homo habilis had invented. Homo erectus became the first human-like creature to leave Africa.

Homo erectus needed a great deal of territory in which to live, mainly because of his wasteful hunting habits. Homo erectus couldn’t stomach the muscle part of his meat-kills, because he didn’t have fire, at first. Instead, homo erectus gleaned the softer organ meats from his kills and ate those. He also used other parts of the animal’s body for tools and clothing, but in general, homo erectus must have wasted a lot of what he killed. Also, the "drive-them-off-the cliff" method of killing almost always killed way more animals than homo erectus could use. Homo erectus had to move on, looking for more herd to track. Homo erectus found Africa too crowded about 1.2 million years ago, and headed out for greener pastures, following the herds of big game animals across the northeast section of Africa, over the red sea, through what is now called the middle east and over into India. Eventually, homo erectus found hunting grounds throughout Asia, first populating the seacoasts and some of the main islands, like java, and moving northward up into what is now china.

It is thought that little bands of homo erectus headed out of Africa in successive waves. These groups may have been as small as 20 individuals or as large as 100, but they were almost certainly kinsfolk. A man and his brothers, or a woman and her sisters, may have formed the nucleus of these little groups, with offspring who were first and second cousins marrying in the next generation. This type of "in-breeding" caused each little group to have distinctive (ethnic) appearances. Some of these early migrants from Africa were dark-skinned, some had medium brown skin, some had straight hair, some had curly hair. Some ended up founding populations in Melanesia, others are the ancestral Asian stock. Scientists disagree over whether later waves of migrants out of Africa mingled and intermarried with the earlier ones, but at any rate, before 1.3 million years ago, everyone now living had an ancestor living in Africa. If mitochondrial DNA analysis (a sophisticated scientific analysis of cellular DNA that is passed on from mother to child outside the nucleus of the cell) is correct, all of us also possess DNA from one woman who lived in Africa a mere 150,000 to 200,000 years ago. Her descendants were so successful that, as they spread out from Africa, they intermarried with members of every other human population. At 150,000 years ago, this was not so difficult, since the world was still sparsely populated and no one lived in the western hemisphere at that time.

By 350,000 years ago, homo erectus was living in most parts of Africa, southeast Asia, Indonesia, and many parts of Europe. One of homo erectus’ big advantages is that it did not compete directly with any existing animals in the ecosystems it encountered, with the exception of other big game predators, like bears and big cats. Homo erectus avoided the very cold parts of northern Europe and Asia when he could, but sometimes herds of caribou and reindeer tempted him to venture into very cold, northern areas, where he was forced to live off an exclusively meat-based diet. His health suffered, infant mortality was high. It was a difficult life. It was made especially difficult by the fact that homo erectus did not know how to make fire. At various times, in various places, homo erectus learned to use fire, by collecting it opportunistically from forest and brush fires caused by lightening. Cooked food was a marvelous revelation to homo erectus, not because of the taste (he was used to raw food of course) but because humans do not digest raw muscle meat particularly well. Homo erectus had mainly been eating soft organ meats, particularly brains and livers. Now, with the use of fire, homo erectus could eat tough muscle meat. With this new technology, homo erectus wasted very little and could raise more children off of the same hunting efforts. This led to an increase in population. However, if the fire ever went out, homo erectus was stranded. Fire had to be borrowed from neighbors or the band had to wait until the next fire season. By 300,000 years ago, most groups of homo erectus were using stone lamps to guard their fires and the position of "fire-guardian" must have been very important. If homo erectus had not been able to use fire in this fashion, the cold snap that occurred just after 300kya would certainly have forced him out of many of his favorite habitats.

There is little or no evidence that homo erectus pursued many leisure time activities. There is no homo erectine art, musical instruments, decorative clothing, jewelry, or even decorated tools. Everything homo erectus made was utilitarian in nature, devoid of extra flourishes. They lived in the open much of the time, although in some places they may have built simple shelters. It is likely they worked animal hides to make shoes and other articles of apparel, as well as packs and carrying bags for their relatively heavy tools.

Around 175,000 years ago, at the tip of south Africa, the first known homo sapiens appear. They are called "archaic" homo sapiens because, although their brains are as large and complex as ours, their teeth and heads were still slightly thicker and bigger. Ice ages had begun alternately freezing and thawing the world around 2 million years ago, and a major ice age was just ending when homo sapiens appeared. Every ice age was grim for homo erectus, but the survivors gained skills - and biological features - their ancestors didn’t have. In south Africa, homo erectus had evolved into homo sapiens. There is no evidence that this is the first or the only place where this occurred, but it is the earliest site found by modern archaeologists.

During an ice age, the world’s oceans shrink as water becomes trapped as ice in the huge polar ice caps and fields of glaciers covering the far north and far south of each continent. When this happens, more land appears. The contemporary coastline, therefore, can be considered inland from where it was 200,000 years ago. Homo sapiens appears to have flourished along the coasts, surviving on shellfish and fishing, living in caves. Many of their earliest sites are likely under water, 20 to 50 miles of the coasts of Africa and possibly Asia. We may never know where.

At any rate, homo sapiens advanced rapidly. Within 25,000 years, homo sapiens had invented things homo erectus had only dreamed of. The homo sapiens brain was about 20% bigger than that of homo erectus, and it contained fully developed language centers. The voice box and other speech equipment (as far as we can tell from skeletal remains) of early homo sapiens was much like ours. Language has been evolving for a long time, and continues to evolve, so it is unlikely that archaic homo sapiens had quite as complex a language as ours, but her thought patterns and conceptual apparatus were remarkably similar - or identical - to ours.

Homo sapiens was expert in the use of fire, possessing a variety of stone lamps fueled by oil. Homo sapiens learned to make fire around 150,000 years ago, although the technology did not become universal right away. Homo sapiens also learned to make a variety of barbs, harpoons, fishhooks, and, at least, spears. The bow and arrow were still a long way in the future, as were simple levers and machines (like the spear thrower). Homo sapiens favored seasonal migratory patterns, with a kind of summer camp and winter camp, each camp near a major type of local food supply. Pottery, baskets, cloth, and many other inventions were still in the future.

Many anthropologists believe that this early population of homo sapiens was so superior to homo erectus that it out-competed homo erectus and completely displaced them from Africa by about 125,000 years ago. Early homo sapiens had no tools of war, and there is no sign that homo sapiens ever fought with or killed any homo erectus. Homo erectus slowly died out, its resources usurped by the smarter and more efficient homo sapiens. In at least one part of the world, on an island in the pacific, homo erectus survived until about 50,000 years ago, living side by side with homo sapiens. In the area best explored by archaeologists, these surviving homo erectines lived across a river from the homo sapiens population, each quietly keeping to themselves. The homo erectines’ population dwindled generation by generation and then became extinct.

By 100,000 years ago, homo sapiens was beginning to show up in Asia and Europe. Some people believe that homo sapiens evolved separately in those places, from existing homo erecting stock. Others believe (and the mitochondrial DNA analysis seems to support them) that a particularly hardy and successful stock of homo sapiens, living in northeastern Africa, was responsible for a great Diaspora. There is certainly evidence that successive waves of homo sapiens arrived in Europe and Asia from Africa starting at around 100,000 years ago. Recent studies suggest that homo sapiens arrived in Australia as early as 125,000 years ago, when another ice age made decreased the amount of open water that they must have had to traverse. It is unknown whether these early people had boats or rafts, since wooden objects do not survive over long periods of time, but it would certainly seem that some sort of flotation device was used - even if only logs swept offshore during a storm, bearing human cargo who were lucky enough not to drown before reaching dry, uninhabited shores.

Linguists believe that this early African population of homo sapiens spread their language throughout the world, even if they did not physically spread themselves or their genes. Cultural tools, like language, can spread and disperse themselves over great distances, even when their original inventors stay far behind. Certainly, there are enough physical differences among the world’s peoples at 100,000 years ago to indicate that they didn’t all have the exact same ancestry, even if some genes may have been dispersed and shared.

Headed, from about 900,000 years ago until the present. In Europe, people were taller and more robust, from around 350,000 years ago. Africa contained the greatest diversity of people, then and now, with heights ranging from averages of under 5 feet (amongst so-called Pygmy populations) to over 6 ½ feet, among tribes like those ancestral to modern people like the Watusi. Asians in general were shorter than Europeans or Africans, with more Gracie features, and rounder, flatter faces. European faces were more probated, with jutting jaws or receding chins, pointed noses, and sloping foreheads. Africa contained evidence of all these features.

Anthropologists believe that these early homo sapiens ranged in skin tone from what we today call "black" to a medium tan color, with sub variations involving skin tones of yellow, red and blue. The darkest people in the world probably lived in what is now India and Ceylon and had straight hair and otherwise "Caucasian" features. The great majority of people had black hair and brown eyes, as today. There were some interesting subpopulations. In Melanesia, there were African-looking folks with orange hair and green eyes; in southern Polynesia, there were somewhat African-looking folks with frizzy brown hair and blue or brown eyes. In Europe, a distinct population of blond-haired, blue-eyed people evolved. Indeed, in the far north of Europe, in places like Norway and Denmark, the entire population evolved to have only blond hair and blue eyes.

The racial enigma - how and where the so-called "races" evolved - has its roots in two more ice ages, one lasting from about 125-75,000 years ago and the last one at 35,000 to 12,000 years ago. In northern Europe, the ice ages were extremely harsh, due both to longitude and altitude. Homo sapiens living there had been accomplished fire-makers since about 125,000 years ago but the ice ages had many hazards. Europe was covered with dense fog, and what is now temperate forest land was then arctic tundra, with little or no vegetation besides lichen. Caribou and reindeer were the only foods for people to eat. Thousands of people died during this ice age in Europe alone, while in Africa, conditions grew drier and cooler, but remained generally much less harsh. The annual available sunlight in Europe was almost zero. There was no growing season.

In these harsh conditions, aside from the nutritional problems associated with lack of vegetables, humans have also to contend with lack of sunlight. Until the invention of modern vitamin technology, which places lots of the essential vitamin d in every glass of milk and many other products, the only source of vitamin d was sunlight. Too much sunlight causes cataracts and cancer, but too little sunlight causes warping of the bones, headaches, devastation to the immune system, infections, slow healing and even death. The skin is the organ that regulates the uptake of vitamin d through the production of a substance called melanin.

Melanin is the pigment responsible for skin, eye and hair color in mammals. The more melanin you have in your skin, the less vitamin d your skin can process - and the more protected you are against cataracts, cancer and immune deficiencies from too much sun. The less melanin you have, the more vitamin d your skin can process. Melanin is responsible for skin color as well. More melanin means darker skin and vice versa. The only people able to survive for generations (some 25,000 years or more) in ice age Europe had very little melanin in their skin. They are blond- and blue-eyed.

Much has been made of this distinction, and we will discuss the effects of skin color on history in later chapters. For now, it is enough to realize that the difference in the amount of melanin in the skin of the lightest Norwegian and the darkest Tamil Indian is a mere 1/16th of an ounce! Melanin plays no other role in the human body, it is found only in the skin, hair and eyes. It does not effect behavior, thought, language, intelligence, emotions or anything else we know of in the human body. It is there to aid in the processing of vitamin d, just as various digestive enzymes are there to digest different components of our diet. When a group of people lives near the equator for a long period of time, their skin gradually grows darker, as malignant melanoma claims the lives of the lightest skinned people and cuts short their reproductive span. The inverse is true in northern climates. As we move north, out of Africa, skin color grows lighter with each passing band of latitude. This is generally true throughout the world, although recent migrations obviously do not have time to evolve and thus appear as exceptions to the rule.

Ice ages in Europe accomplished a few other things, as well. Necessity is truly the mother of invention, and ice age Europeans grew accomplished at big game hunting and the weaponry associated with it. They had little chance to experiment with agriculture or plants, but they would invent the spear thrower and a variety of sophisticated spearheads. Meanwhile, in warmer climates, simple gardening would develop. As the last ice age began, the retreating ocean opened up a land bridge from Asia, across the Bering strait, to Canada and Alaska, and thousands of European and Asian tribal folks passed across that bridge to become the first native Americans, showing up in what is now new Mexico by 28,000 years ago. At the height of the ice age, even the most intrepid explorers could not make it from Asia to north America. It is unknown whether some of the new north Americans returned to Asia with news of the vast, new, uninhabited continent. Probably not. But when the last ice age ended, 12,000 years ago, many more waves of mostly Asian tribal folks spread into north America, continuously migrating until they reached the very tip of Patagonia by 10,000 years ago.

The similarities in dress, customs, religion and language between Asians living 12,000 years ago and native Americans are striking, and we will cover those later in this reading. For now, it is enough to contemplate this great human Diaspora. At 10,000 years ago, tribal people - all of them hunter-gatherers, with no metal tools of any kind, had populated the major continents except Antarctica. The large islands of the pacific were inhabited, and only the tiny, remote islands of Polynesia and Micronesia remained for exploration and settlement. At 10,000 years ago, boats were in use, but what made people leave their homelands and head into uncharted waters in the pacific remains a mystery. Thor Heyerdahl maintains that trade caused people to navigate huge stretches of the pacific, and he believes most of their voyages involved successful returns to their homelands.

Overpopulation, warfare, and religious conflict begin to appear in the prehistoric record at about 10,000 years ago, and all are known reasons for some of the pacific migrations. By 10,000 years ago, basketry and pottery were established arts in nearly all the world, and in Ireland and Japan, the bow and arrow had been invented. The ancestors of contemporary Micronesians and Polynesians were probably still living in Asia, possibly in Thailand, Ceylon and India. They left their homelands as refugees of sorts, looking for places that would take them in. Some were lucky, finding uninhabited islands; many drowned; some were enslaved on already inhabited islands; some simply settled down amongst already existing populations and intermarried. The Diaspora continued.

In the far north, no one had ever managed to live year round in the arctic tundra until the Eskimos invented a lifestyle for themselves there, at around 3,500 years ago, populating Siberia, northern Canada and the edges of Alaska and maintaining their populations there until the present time. Their lifestyle and diet was very much like the ice age lifestyle of Europe. As time wore on, Eskimos grew shorter and stockier, with more fat cells around their central bodies, in response to the extreme cold.

As Polynesians trekked through the pacific, using a sophisticated celestial navigation system and large, sturdy boats, they settled the western part of Polynesia first. They were intentional settlers. When they left, they provisioned their longboats with all the things they knew were essential for life on a new island: chickens, pigs, dogs, taro root, bananas, coconuts and other foodstuffs. In the beginning, they also took pottery, but by the time they settled Hawaii, Polynesians had lost the craft of making pottery; they had stopped taking it with them. Hawaii, the world’s most isolated island chain, was one of the last places on earth to be settled at about 1600 years ago. Surprisingly, people had managed to "miss" New Zealand and, when Hawaiian voyagers found it around 800 years ago, the world was finally "full.".

Technology progress Brings Down Economics

One of long logic in economics" quality excelsior a product, so also price sell it" , the mentioned at hook with production cost and innovation to creat itself quality. A example very strong the meaning handphone. In this time many handphones with good quality but far price cheaper is compared first generation handphone product. The mentioned one of them at trigger by human thinking jump via technology.

Or case example in the world of technology information (it), when does that conventional mail concept tight with delivery that want time not short, but technology it can to present delivery only in count less than one second. This example other that overturned human logic.

Run a company/department can be analogized with simple analogy drive car. Where always be demanded fast decision turn or not and as it. A driver can not only rely on all car indicator at facia. Only functioned to detect where the car position in this time and who resides in the hind. Gas pedal not may be at spur interminable, such also the things of brake pedal. Harmony uses according to vehicle function maximal and opinion sharpness (point of view) the driver need base, at least to bring vehicle congratulation until aim.

To achieve skill level can be done with a few manner. One of them that is put into element spiritual in skill box a professional. Besides give freshment in face of dicey situation likes in this time, spiritual also build contemplation space that make possible free human a moment from period shackles. Several practices spiritual like in sufisme and zen has discipline to form good contemplation spaces. Koan, for example, game spiritual that contain strength to do thinking jump, with train human to move to pass questions not may be in the contemplation space.

But all the things still necessary courage existences to make and spirit to achieve result better. Setled condition" cemetary" most often occupied ceo ever successful.

Information System Utilization Hindrance

Information system utilization that consist of hardware technology, software, system method and human resource, still many experience obstacle because institution or company not yet has transparency spirit and more corruption quantity at all lines.

If only as tools to help for example job types and count, the mentioned will not be problem. But when enter area a all system online, integration and transparent of course limited for organization internal, efforts make many sides "sultry".

Why does that appear? Because if without transparent information system and integration, previous there big opportunity to manipulates various data, from change real data until can make receipt self. Also lost it opportunity because with it there is no again chance to postpone job.

Previous with postpone job, who wants fast served must there" fee" beforehand. Form actually be denial can with reason kinds, human resource not ready, expensive cost (while not yet is counted cost and benefit-), " organization politicking" , up to extreme to sabotage internal system. Although not as single factor in failure, obstacles like that bot rarely make a information system project fail midway and stamped never finished.

Developer system do not know field and factor complication jungle" x" client is frustration and lost, user side even also lost time and cost. The unique, system failure often import" opportunity" for organization internal person, because there new project again that can import" profit" new from beginning negotiation up to implementation.

If canvassed deeper, institution or company final success apply information system according to integration certain has bad experience shaped loss lost it time and cost from various previous case. Really system denial obstacle not always come from persons resistence in organization that lose" opportunity" , but organizations leaders very must ready clean factor non technical this before dream has system integration and transparent.